A History of Meat-Eating - Part 1: Before Agriculture

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February 16, 2025

Humans have never been more confused about eating meat. Some common questions include:

Is meat good or bad for us?
Is eating meat ethical?
Is eating meat bad for the environment?
Are grass-fed and pasture-raised meats better than industrial meats?
Will we all eat plant-based and lab-grown meats in the future?

To really understand these questions, we’ll need to travel back in time. Way back. In this three-part blog series, we’ll rewind the clock 7 million years and explore the complex role eating meat has played in shaping our bodies and cultures over the course of human history.

In Part 1, we’ll look at the vast majority of this period, from the earliest hominins (humans and closely related species) to the dawn of the Agricultural Revolution. We'll see how eating meat played a central role in the development of our species.

In Part 2, we’ll examine the Agricultural Revolution and its far-reaching impacts on our diets, cultures, and ecosystems.

In Part 3, we’ll take a look at just the past 100 years when industrial agriculture came to be the dominant paradigm, and what this has meant for meat quality, animal welfare, and the health of our planet.

Finally, we’ll circle back around to the questions posed at the beginning and see if we can draw on this historical context to provide some answers.

Buckle up, we’ll be covering 7 million years in a matter of minutes!

PRELIMINARY NOTES:

I'd like to offer my deepest thanks to Dr. Briana Pobiner for reviewing this article and providing helpful suggestions along the way. Dr. Pobiner is a paleoanthropologist and museum educator at the Smithsonian's Human Origins Program. Her research centers on the evolution of the human diet with a focus on meat-eating.
All images are AI-generated and certain artistic liberties (such as clothing and body hair) have been taken. Images are being used to convey a general sense, not archeological fact.

7 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-27-18.44.49---A-digital-illustration-of-a-lush-East-African-forest,-surrounded-by-vibrant-green-leaves,-fruits-like-figs-and-berries,-and-vines.-The-scene-is-devoid.webp — A lush African forest teeming with fruits and foliage — the ancestral home of the earliest hominins.

The first hominins evolved in Africa.¹ Their brains were about one-third the size of modern humans.² They lived in the trees but walked upright at least some of the time, and they ate leaves and fruits (similar to modern chimpanzees.)³

They were likely eaten by snakes, crocodiles, large cats, and large birds of prey.⁴

4.4 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-29-13.03.59---A-detailed-digital-painting-depicting-a-mature-male-Ardipithecus-ramidus,-one-of-the-earliest-Hominin-species-to-incorporate-a-moderate-amount-of-meat.webp — Jungle sushi, anyone?

A hominin species called Ardipithecus ramidus evolved in East Africa. Even after millions of years, their diets were mostly unchanged from those of the earliest hominins. They only ate the occasional piece of meat when the opportunity presented itself. ⁵

3.3 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-27-11.47.27---A-dramatic-digital-illustration-of-Australopithecus-africanus-3.2-million-years-ago,-set-at-the-edge-of-a-forest-transitioning-into-open-plains.-The-s.webp — Leaving the trees was a risky business.

Australopithecus africanus, or "Africa Ape Man," evolved in South Africa. Chemical analyses of their teeth suggest that their diets included small amounts of meat.⁶ More recent studies have confirmed this, but stress that the quantity of meat they ate was likely quite small.⁷

The region they inhabited was composed of mixed woodlands and savannah grassland which they shared with large predators. As such, they were likely eaten by lions and leopards.

2.9 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-02-12-12.11.14---A-realistic-depiction-of-a-group-of-Paranthropus-individuals-using-Oldowan-stone-tools-near-a-recently-deceased-hippo-carcass.-The-Paranthropus-have-r-(1).webp — The genus Paranthropus may have engaged in large animal butchery before our own genus, Homo.

Members of the now-extinct hominin genus Paranthropus, a genus that co-existed with our direct ancestors, ate a primarily plant-based diet.⁸ However, a site was recently found that suggests they at least occasionally dined on raw hippopotamus.⁹

2.6 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-27-18.54.34---A-realistic-digital-painting-of-early-Homo-scavenging-a-carcass-in-an-arid-African-savannah.-The-scavengers-are-depicted-as-hairier-and-more-ape-like,.webp.webp — Scavenging for bone marrow was key to hominin survival on the plains.

Bones with butchery marks have been found from this period, indicating that members of our genus, Homo, had begun processing animal carcasses.¹⁰

Homo habilis, or "Handy Man," is considered the first hominin to regularly use tools, a practice that suggests improving hand dexterity and cognitive function. Simple stone tools were crucial for scavenging meat and breaking bones to access marrow after those higher on the food chain — such as saber-toothed cats and hyenas — had had their fill.¹¹

2 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-30-17.06.26---A-detailed-digital-painting-inspired-by-the-reference-image-of-Homo-erectus,-depicting-an-individual-using-a-stone-tool-to-butcher-an-elephant-carcass.webp.webp — Technology's humble beginnings.

Homo habilis began using small sharp stone flakes that allowed for more efficient butchering and processing of large animals. Fossils from this time period show ample evidence of butchery marks on bones, suggesting hominin butchery had become more common.¹²

However, the apparent rise in evidence for butchery around this time may be partly due to the disproportionate attention researchers have paid to this period.¹³

1.9 million years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-27-12.55.49---A-dynamic-digital-illustration-of-a-band-of-Homo-erectus-living-in-Africa-2-million-years-ago.-The-scene-shows-several-Homo-erectus-individuals-with-r.webp — Working together in large groups would ultimately become one of humanity's defining traits.

Homo erectus, or "Upright Man," was an early human that walked fully upright and had adapted to life on the ground. Walking upright had profound benefits, including more efficient movement, freeing hands for tool use and communication, and it provided a better vantage point for seeing both predators and prey.

Homo erectus was incredibly successful, surviving longer than any other human species (about 1.7 million years.) Their brains were about two-thirds the size of modern humans. These large brains would have required a lot of energy to maintain, and the evidence suggests they were able to do this by becoming adept at acquiring nutrient-dense meat.¹⁴

Crucially, they began chasing predators off their fresh kills which enabled them to acquire the more nutritious parts of animals, such as organ meats. It has been argued that this practice, known as confrontational scavenging, was how early humans learned more complex forms of cooperation and initially developed language.¹⁵

Over time, Homo erectus became the first human to successfully hunt, further increasing their access to high-value meat.

800,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-24-10.30.26---A-photorealistic-rendering-of-early-humans-gathered-around-a-campfire-on-an-open-grassland-at-night.-They-are-roasting-meat-on-sticks,-with-glowing-em.webp.webp — Controlling fire was a major turning point for humanity.

Humans began cooking meat and other foods over fire, making it much safer to consume and easier to digest.¹⁶

At this time hominin brain sizes began increasing much more rapidly.¹⁷ Cooking increases the bioavailability of nutrients which would have been particularly important for the growing hominin brain.

Controlling fire marked a turning point in human evolution. It allowed them to "pre-digest" foods outside their bodies, which required less energy and caused their digestive tracts and teeth to shrink over time.

It has been suggested that a smaller gut and larger brain co-evolved due to a shift towards meat consumption.¹⁸ The human gut had become smaller than those of other primates, and was becoming increasingly optimized for digesting calorie-dense and nutrient-rich foods like meat, rather than fibrous plant matter. This more efficient metabolism allowed humans to store excess energy as fat, supporting survival in times of food scarcity.¹⁹

600,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-24-11.17.48---A-stunning-digital-painting-of-Homo-heidelbergensis-700,000-years-ago,-living-in-a-cold-climate.-The-scene-shows-a-small-group-of-Homo-heidelbergensis.webp.webp — Migrating to new territory that was previously inhospitable would have meant fresh hunting grounds.

With the ability to control fire, humans began spreading to colder climates. Homo heidelbergensis is considered the common ancestor of both Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) and Homo sapiens (modern humans.) They were most likely the first humans to live in colder climates and build shelters. They were also the first to work in groups to hunt animals far larger than themselves, such as elephants.²⁰ Additionally, they pioneered the use of stone-tipped spears.²¹

500,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-30-17.17.32---A-dramatic-digital-painting-depicting-4-or-5-Denisovans-hunting-a-blue-sheep,-also-known-as-a-bharal.-The-bharal-is-shown-running-away-from-the-Deniso.webp — In addition to providing meat, hunting wild sheep would have also provided new fashion possibilities.

Denisovans were a close relative of Neanderthals, and evidence suggests they likely consumed significant amounts of meat, though their diet remains less well-documented than that of Neanderthals.²² One animal they hunted were bharal, or blue sheep.²³

400,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-30-17.14.04---A-dramatic-digital-painting-depicting-3-or-4-Neanderthals-using-stone-tipped-spears-to-hunt-a-woolly-rhinoceros.-The-scene-shows-the-massive-woolly-rh.webp.webp — Humanity's journey from prey to predator was now well underway.

Homo neanderthalensis, our closest human relative, evolved in Europe and the Middle East. Their brains were slightly larger than modern humans relative to their body size. They made and used sophisticated tools, wore clothing, controlled fire, and were skilled hunters of large animals, such as woolly rhinoceroses.

Because Neanderthals often lived in cooler climates, they did not have a year-round supply of plant foods like other hominins who lived in tropical Africa. This would have forced them to rely more heavily on meat during the winter months.

There is also evidence that when living in coastal areas, they exploited marine resources such as seals, dolphins, mollusks, and fish. Based on chemical analyses of their bones, scientists conclude meat played a primary role in their diet.²⁴

300,000 years ago

Homo sapiens (that's us!) evolved in Africa. We inherited significant adaptations that are associated with the acquisition and consumption of meat.

We have highly dexterous hands, an adaptation going back to the earliest primates that took a major leap forward with Homo habilis. Their precision grip enabled the crafting and use of tools to process animal carcasses, which then became an increasingly important food source.

We have small teeth, an adaptation also going back to Homo habilis and their use of tools for processing food, and (later) Homo erectus as cooking and meat consumption became more important and diets shifted away from fibrous plant material.

We walk upright, an adaptation that reached maturity with Homo erectus, and opened up new possibilities for hunting and evading predators.

Last but not least, we have large brains, an adaptation that took a giant leap forward with Homo erectus, and continued its upward trajectory with Homo heidelbergensis. Along with these large brains came complex social interaction, creative thinking, and enhanced tool use (including the use of fire,) which further increased our access to the nutrients required by resource-hungry brains.

By the time we arrived on the scene, the daily use of fire had become commonplace. And like other humans that were living at that time, early Homo sapiens both gathered and hunted based upon the regional availability of food sources.²⁵

164,000 years ago

Homo sapiens living along shorelines were subsisting on diets rich in shellfish.²⁶

75,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-24-11.28.28---A-stunning-digital-painting-of-a-band-of-Homo-sapiens-migrating-out-of-Africa-70,000-years-ago.-The-group,-composed-of-men,-women,-and-children,-is-de.webp.webp — They left in search of greener pastures.

The ancestors of all humans alive today began migrating out of Africa due to climate change. Droughts in Africa may have led to widespread starvation, and they migrated towards Europe and Asia in search of new food sources.²⁷

Homo sapiens also began to leave increasing evidence of widespread cooperation. For example, the same style of stone tool was being used all over the African continent during this time. This suggest that humans had begun to develop large social networks, which may have been central to the success of their migration out of the continent, their ability to survive through times of significant climate change, and their eventual expansion across the globe.^28,29

71,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-24-10.31.28---A-detailed-digital-illustration-of-Homo-sapiens-hunters-in-a-wooded-area,-using-primitive-bows-to-stalk-prey-like-a-mammoth-or-deer.-The-hunters-are-c.webp — Striking from a distance meant hunting big game with fewer risks.

Homo sapiens began using bows to hunt.³⁰ As this new technology improved, we became significantly more effective at harvesting food and other resources from the ecosystems we inhabited.

50,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-24-11.34.27---A-stunning-digital-painting-of-a-group-of-Homo-sapiens-hunting-a-flock-of-400-pound-flightless-birds-in-Australia-45,000-years-ago.-The-scene-shows-ea.webp — Hunting species to extinction became our specialty.

Homo sapiens arrived in Australia.³¹

88% of Australian megafauna (large animals) including 1,000-pound kangaroos, 500-pound wombats, and 500-pound flightless birds that stood nearly 7 feet tall, became extinct within the next 10,000 years. This was due to a combination of climate change and pressure from human predation.^32,33

42,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-29-13.13.50---A-detailed-digital-painting-depicting-humans-40,000-years-ago,-thriving-in-coastal-communities-as-they-fish-using-spears,-nets,-and-baskets.-The-scene.webp.webp — Fishing offered a consistent supply of protein, healthy fats, and micronutrients with relatively low risk.

Homo sapiens became more adept at fishing using spears, nets, baskets, and hooks. This allowed us to extract prodigious quantities of nutrients from the world's oceans, lakes, and streams.³⁴

25,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-01-27-13.10.08---A-detailed-digital-illustration-depicting-humans-arriving-in-America-16,000-years-ago.-The-scene-shows-a-tribe-of-early-humans-wearing-primitive-cloth.webp.webp — The last human species.

Homo sapiens, now the last surviving human species, arrived in the Americas.³⁵ We lived largely off the abundant wild game, including mammoths, bison, deer, elk, caribou, bears, beavers, rabbits, squirrels, turtles, snakes, birds, fish, and shellfish.^36,37

North and South America lost roughly 75% of their megafauna, with mammoths, giant ground sloths, sabretooth tigers and many other species that had existed for millions of years going extinct shortly after the arrival of humans.³⁸

12,000 years ago

DALL·E-2025-02-06-09.41.20---A-detailed-digital-painting-depicting-the-early-stages-of-animal-domestication,-marking-a-major-shift-in-human-history.-The-scene-focuses-on-an-open-f-(1).webp — With wild game growing scarce and human populations on the rise, we turned to domesticating animals.

The domestication of edible plants and animals began. This marked a major shift in the human diet to a more stable (but far less diverse) food supply, and paved the way for permanent human settlements. We'll explore the profound impacts of the Agricultural Revolution in Part 2.

---

For millions of years, our ancestors lived on the edge of survival, spending their days foraging for leaves and fruits while trying not to become food themselves. The struggle to meet their nutritional needs consumed nearly all their time and energy, leaving little room for anything else. Over time, they learned to acquire and metabolize nutrients from an expanding array of sources. The occasional bit of scavenged meat or bone marrow meant surviving one more day in a harsh world.

Some groups of hominins prevailed and secured access to diverse diets of nutritious foods to fuel their bodies and growing brains. The groups that learned to cooperate, adapt, and innovate survived. Those that did not, perished. Unlike the predators we competed with, we didn’t acquire food primarily through brute strength, speed, or sharp claws, but through intelligence, strategy, and teamwork. We became collaborative hunters rather than scattered bands of tree-dwelling primates. We became predators instead of prey. Meat during this era represented the survival of the group. Survival through teamwork meant deepening social ties. We had learned that the more we worked together, the more we thrived.

But over thousands of years of hunting innovations and an expanding human population, the ecological price of our success mounted. Humans spread to every corner of the globe and our arrival in new lands coincided with waves of extinction. Meat had come to represent our triumph over the rest of the animal kingdom.

As those animals that we had come to rely on disappeared, we turned our large brains to a new task. With the advent of agriculture, we were no longer just another member of the ecological community. We were altering entire ecosystems.

The "Age of Man" had begun.

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This concludes Part 1 of our history of eating meat. In Part 2, we’ll look at the Agricultural Revolution and examine humanity's evolving relationship with meat as we stopped chasing our prey and learned to domesticate them instead.
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References

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About the Author
Grant Jones grew up on the Olympic Peninsula and studied English Literature & Philosophy at the University of Washington. He operates Hungry Hollow Farm, a regenerative farm producing pastured meat, eggs, honey, and no-till veggies. In 2023, he co-founded Mt. Joy, the first fried chicken restaurant in the U.S. to source chicken exclusively from pasture farms instead of factory farms.

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